Bidjogo Dugn-be

TITLE: Bidjogo Dugn-be
TYPE: helmet mask
GENERAL REGION: Africa
COUNTRY: Guinea-Bissau
SUBREGION: Bissagos Islands
ETHNICITY: Bidjogo
DESCRIPTION: Dugn-be (Village Ox) helmet mask
CATALOG ID: AFGW001
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Adult Initiation
AGE: 1970s-1980s
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: plant fiber; cotton strips; kaolin clay

The Bidjogo people (also written Bijogo or Bidyogo) are a small ethnic group inhabiting coastal Guinea-Bissau. They continue to practice their animistic religion, resisting conversion to Islam unlike many neighboring peoples.  Their masks are primarily used in manratche, the adult initiation ritual for boys. There are actually multiple initiation rituals in Bidjogo society, ranking boys based on their age group. Unlike most African ethnic groups, the Bidjogo do not have specialized carvers; instead, each family makes its own masks.

The ox is an unusual masking choice in Africa, because normally masks are intended to invoke the power of wild animals and their special traits. In contrast, oxen are domesticated (dugn-be means literally “ox raised in the village”), brought to the Bidjogo by Portuguese traders late in the fifteenth century. The Bidjogo economy soon began to revolve domesticated cattle at least as much as their traditional fishing.

Initiates in the middle age group of boys wear the masks to celebrate the wild nature of post-puberty life. Masqueraders imitate the ox’s aggressive behavior. Initiation masks are critical to achieving the social status necessary for creating objects of religious worship used for entering the afterworld where the deceased becomes one with the Bidjogo god.

The Bidjogo use four different kinds of bull masks. The white triangle at the center of its upper brow marks this mask as a dugn’be. Dancers wear the mask attached to a long, cylindrical wood or wicker neck that rests on their shoulders with a raffia costume.

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Kuba Mukenga Mask

TITLE: Kuba Mukenga Mask
TYPE: helmet mask
GENERAL REGION: Africa
COUNTRY: Congo, Dem. Rep. of
SUBREGION: Western Kasai
ETHNICITY: Kuba
DESCRIPTION: Mukenga helmet mask
CATALOG ID: AFCD002
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Funeral; Secret Society; Status
AGE: ca. 1960s
MAIN MATERIAL: cloth
OTHER MATERIALS: wood; glass beads; cowrie shells; leopard fur; thread; plant fiber; metal plating

The Kuba people of the Democratic Republic of Congo have several masks associated with royalty. The mukenga mask is associated with the highest status of the Babende initiation society through its invocation of the most powerful forest animals, the leopard and the elephant (note its trunk-like crest). Cowrie shells and glass beads were valuable trade goods and their use denotes wealth and status.

Mukenga masks are danced at funerals of titled nobility by members of the mukenga society. Because the mukenga masquerader has no vision (the helmet mask has no eye holes), attendants assist him to remain within the dance area. The mukenga dancer represents an important person visiting the village to pay respects to the deceased.

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Parachico (Patrón) Mask

TITLE: Parachico (Patrón) Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Chiapas
ETHNICITY: Mayan
DESCRIPTION: Patrón de Parachicos (Boss of Parachicos) Mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX002
MAKER: Unknown maker in Chiapa de Corzo
CEREMONY: Fiesta de San Sebastián
AGE: 1970s
MAIN MATERIAL: cedar wood
OTHER MATERIALS: oil paint; lacquer; glass eyes; synthetic eyelashes

The Baile de los Parachicos is unique to Chiapas, the southernmost region of Mexico, and is most commonly performed in Chiapa de Corzo and Suchiapa.  It may have pre-Columbian origins, but its modern version is believed to originate in the myth of a wealthy Spanish noblewoman whose sick child could not be cured by doctors in Guatemala. She eventually brought him north to Chiapas, and a Mayan priest recommended she bathe in the healing waters of Cumbujuyú for nine days.  After the child recovered, the woman held a feast of thanksgiving and her servants danced for the children. Hence the name, parachico, meaning “for the little boy.”  In modern times, the parade is held during the holiday of St. Sebastian, the patron saint of Chiapa de Corzo.

The dance begins with a parade of the parachicos through the streets led by a patrón, or boss (represented by this mask), which is somewhat more elaborate and distinctive than the others. All parachicos wear black pants with colorful embroidered designs, white shirt, a bright sarape, black leather boots, and they carry a tin rattle (sonaja).  As they parade, they echo phrases shouted by the patrón, such as:

“¡Vivan los que ya no pueden, muchachos!” (“Long live those who can’t do it any longer, boys!” or “Long live the elders!”)

“¡Viva el gusto de nosotros, muchachos!” (“Long live our shared tastes, boys!” or “Long live our traditions!”)

“¡Viva la mano poderosa, muchachos!” (“Long live the powerful hand, boys!” or “Long live God’s will!”)

“¡Viva la pandilla rica, muchachos!” (“Long live the rich gang, boys!” or “Long live the parachicos!”)

They may also shout out more or less improvised verses, devout or comical, such as “Little mermaid, little mermaid, sea mermaid, Praise the Holy One and señor St. Sebastián” or “Passing by your window, you threw me a lemon, the lemon hit my face, and went straight to my heart.”

They then perform a group dance to the sound of drums and marimba, guitar, or other instruments. Women in brightly colored floral dresses may accompany them in less formal dances.

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Shamanic Mask

TITLE: Shamanic Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: Nepal
SUBREGION: Middle Hills
ETHNICITY: Gurung or Magar
DESCRIPTION: Shamanic Mask
CATALOG ID: ASNP009
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Healing; Purification
AGE: mid-twentieth century
MAIN MATERIAL: charred wood
OTHER MATERIALS: N/A

This mask originates in the middle hills area of the Himalaya mountains, either from the Gurung or Magar people. Such masks are among the most primitive in use in the world, and are made by carving wood, coating it with yak butter fat, and charring it over a smoky fire.

The shaman plays an important social role as the channeler of spirits for healing, purification, and protection of those under his supervision. Masks help the shaman embody one of the spirits that surround the living world and use it to heal the sick, drive away evil influences, and guide villagers through changes in their lives (birth, adulthood, changes in social status, death) that might be affected by the spirit world. When hung in a house, the mask serves a protective function.  The Magar and Gurung people use very similar masks for identical purposes.

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Kyōgen Usobuki

TITLE: Kyōgen Usobuki
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: Japan
ETHNICITY: Japanese
DESCRIPTION: Usobuki Kyodomen Mask
CATALOG ID: ASJP018
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Kyōgen Dance Drama
AGE: Unknown
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: horsehair; paint; lacquer

Kyōgen is a popular form of Japanese theater. It was traditionally used in village plays and developed alongside Noh theater, where it was performed at intermissions.  Unlike Noh, which tends to have serious themes, the kyōgen generally takes the form of comedic plays.

The usobuki (sometimes transliterated usofuki) (“air blower”) is a comical character who appears to be blowing mightily. It is commonly thought to derive from a folk story about a boy named Hyottoko, who could produce gold from his belly button.  It is used in different plays to represent a wide variety of roles, including a sinner on his way to the underworld, a scarecrow, insect spirits, and even plant spirits.


To watch a short documentary about Japanese Nogaku (Noh drama and Kyogen plays), click above.

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Diablo-Calavera

TITLE: Diablo-Calavera
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Mexico
SUBREGION: Michoacán
ETHNICITY: Purépecha
DESCRIPTION: Diablo-Calavera (Devil-Skull) Mask
CATALOG ID: LAMX066
MAKER: Manuel Horta Ramos (Tocuaro)
CEREMONY: Pastorela
AGE: 2015
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: plaster; maque

The Pastorela is the ceremonial dance drama of Michoacán state in Mexico. Pastorelas, performed in February during the Shrovetide season, are primarily religious in significance. The main characters of the Dance of the Shepherds are the Devil, the Archangel Michael, shepherds, and a hermit (who paradoxically represents the ancestors of the performers).  The drama revolves around the attempts of Lucifer and his demon minions to steal the baby Jesus.  Other dramas performed on the occasion include the Dance of the Negritos (dance of the little blacks), relating to the importation of African slaves into Mexico by the Spaniards, and which includes an army of elegantly dressed “little Maries” (Maringuillas), like the one represented by this mask, and feos, or ugly clowns.

This mask was carved by Manuel Horta, one of a famous extended family of carvers from the town of Tocuaro, in 2015.

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Fasnet Character Mask

TITLE: Fasching Character Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Europe
COUNTRY: Germany
SUBREGION: Bavaria
ETHNICITY: Swabian (German)
DESCRIPTION: Bearded Character Mask
CATALOG ID: EUDE003
MAKER: Unknown maker in Garmisch-Partenkirchen
CEREMONY: Fasching (Carnival)
AGE: 1930
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: paint; string

In many parts of Swabia and Bavaria, Carnival (usually called Fasnet or Fastnet in this region of Germany) is celebrated with parades of masked clowns (Narren) and characters lampooning local villager types. The beer-swiller, the gossip, and benign old man and woman, and the fool are all typically represented. This mask probably represents a drunkard, based on the reddish, bulbous nose.

Regrettably, the best text on Carnival in Bavaria and Swabia is still available in German only: Heinz Wintermantel’s Hoorig, hoorig isch die Katz (Würzburg: Konrad Theiss, 1978).

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Leyak Mata Besik

TITLE: Leyak Mata Besik
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Asia
COUNTRY: Indonesia
SUBREGION: Bali
ETHNICITY: Balinese
DESCRIPTION: Leyak Mata Besik
CATALOG ID: ASID023
MAKER: Ida Ketut Berati (Singapadu, 1967- )
CEREMONY: Calonarang Dance Drama
AGE: 2013
MAIN MATERIAL: pule wood
OTHER MATERIALS: oil paint; horsehair; gold-plated silver; semi-precious stones; string; rubber strap

The Calonarang dance drama centers around the character known as Rangda (also called Calonarang), who is the queen of witches and represents the Hindu goddess of death, Durga. Each village in Bali has a temple honoring the dead, dedicated to Durga. A performance of Calonarang is rare today, but it may commemorate the anniversary of a temple, or it may be used to purify a village if a disease epidemic appears. Rangda challenges the local witches (leyak) to a display of power, and if she prevails, they must stop inflicting ills on the village. Calonarang also serves to educate about Indonesian history and entertain the audience.

Rangda has a number of leyak followers. They are believed to haunt graveyards, devour corpses, and have the power to fly and morph themselves into animals. This specific mask represents Leyak Mata Besik, a witch who has studied black magic under Rangda’s tutelage. The mask was carved and painted by the master craftsman I. Ketut Berati of Singapadu.

For more on Balinese masks, see Judy Slattum, Masks of Bali: Spirits of an Ancient Drama (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1992).

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Venado (Deer) Mask

TITLE: Venado Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Latin America
COUNTRY: Guatemala
SUBREGION: Panajachel
ETHNICITY: Mayan (Kaqchikel)
DESCRIPTION: Venado (Deer) Mask
CATALOG ID: LAGT034
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Baile del Venado (Dance of the Deer)
AGE: 1960s
MAIN MATERIAL: wood
OTHER MATERIALS: white-tailed deer antlers; paint; plastic eyes; dyed cotton cloth; mirrors; sequins; brass bells; polyester fabric

The Baile del Venado, also called the Danza del Venado, is an annual ceremony in several cities of central and southern Guatemala, usually during a holiday in honor of the town’s patron saint. Frequently it takes place over a week or more.  The dance dates back to the pre-colonization and undoubtedly originates in Mayan rituals of respect for nature and prayer for a good hunt.  In its modern incarnation, the Baile del Venado typically involves several masked characters, including a steward or mayordomo (in Kaqchikel, cachucha), Margarita (his wife), and el Moro (the Moor, who is actually Caucasian in this region and has a quetzal bird on his forehead).  With them are several animals, depending on the village, and they may include a mono (monkey), mico (small monkey), león (lion), tigre (tiger), tigrillo (little tiger), jaguar, perro (dog), a guacamaya roja (Scarlet Macaw), and sometimes others.  In some places, the mono and mico are the same character.  The number of each animal character depends on the size of the village and the number of participants.

While originally this dance simulated a hunt, in modern times the animals dance and the mayordomo and Margarita feed them. The moro enters last, with a quetzal on his head as punishment from the gods for having worn sacred quetzal feathers.  The moro does not hunt the animals, but rather acts as their guardian and caretaker.

This mask was made in the 1960s and danced extensively in Panajachel by Evaristo Rosales. It may come from a moreria (mask and costume maker and renter) in Solalá or Chichicastenango.

For more on Guatemalan masks, see Jim Pieper, Guatemala’s Masks and Drama (University of New Mexico Press, 2006).

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Paper Carnival Mask

TITLE: Paper Carnival Mask
TYPE: face mask
GENERAL REGION: Europe
COUNTRY: France
SUBREGION: N/A
ETHNICITY: French
DESCRIPTION: Carnival character mask
CATALOG ID: EUFR001
MAKER: Unknown
CEREMONY: Carnival
AGE: ca. 1930s
MAIN MATERIAL: kraft paper
OTHER MATERIALS: paint; copper wire; human hair

During the 1930s in Europe, sluggish economies created demand for inexpensive versions of traditional Carnival masks that had previously been made from wood or thick paper maché. Enterprising companies began making disposable masks from cheaper kraft paper, hand painted by the abundant labor available due to high unemployment. This mask originates in France and represents a clown-like character. The toothbrush mustache originated in United States around 1900 and spread to Europe, where it remained popular until early 1940s.

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